In a world abundant with ideas and overflowing with news, Islam rejects every claim that is not supported by conclusive evidence. Indeed, it invites every claimant to bring forth evidence to prove the truth of their claim, as Allah says, “Say, 'Produce your proof, if you should be truthful.'” (Al-Baqarah: 111)

Definition and Uses of Evidence in the Quran and Sunnah

Evidence, known as “burhan,” refers to clear and decisive proof. ⁽¹⁾ It is defined as reasoning composed of certainties, ⁽²⁾ serving as conclusive proof of the truth of matters.

Allah mentions evidence in the Quran as an undeniable truth, acknowledged by all rational beings. He also uses it to challenge disbelievers to corroborate their claims of following others or worshipping deities other than Allah.

Regarding undeniable truth, Allah says, “O mankind, there has come to you a conclusive proof from your Lord.” (An-Nisa: 174) To challenge disbelievers to provide evidence for their claims, He says, “And We will extract from every nation a witness and say, 'Produce your proof,' and they will know that the truth belongs to Allah, and lost from them is that which they used to invent.” (Al-Qasas: 75)

In the Sunnah, evidence is mentioned to signify a definitive truth within the self and reality. In Sahih Muslim, Abu Malik Al-Ash'ari narrated that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said, “Charity is a proof,” indicating that charity is a sign of a believer's faith. Thus, those who give in charity demonstrate the sincerity of their faith through their actions.

Types of Evidence

The Quran directs us to various types of evidence that should be relied upon when presenting or accepting ideas, which include:

1. Sensory Evidence:

This refers to evidence perceivable through the senses, such as observation and the like. Allah says, “Say, 'Have you considered your 'partners' whom you invoke besides Allah? Show me what they have created of the earth.” (Fatir: 40) Additionally, He states, “And they have made the angels, who are servants of the Most Merciful, females. Did they witness their creation? Their testimony will be recorded, and they will be questioned.” (Az-Zukhruf: 19) He also says, “[And] who created seven heavens in layers. You do not see in the creation of the Most Merciful any inconsistency. So return [your] vision [to the sky]; do you see any breaks? Then return [your] vision twice again. [Your] vision will return to you humbled while it is fatigued.” (Al-Mulk: 3-4) These ayahs call upon sensory observation which validates or invalidates ideas.

2. Audible Evidence:

This refers to evidence heard from divine revelation, which conveys Allah's commands and prohibitions. If the prophethood of a prophet is proven through definitive proofs, that he presents the will of Allah the Almighty, it is obligatory to accept his teachings on matters of legislation, commands, prohibitions, etc. Any claim regarding these matters can only be supported by evidence and knowledge from Allah.

The Quran addresses those who arbitrarily deemed certain livestock lawful or unlawful, saying: “Inform me with knowledge, if you should be truthful.” (Al-An'am: 143) When they claimed that Allah willed their actions, He responded: “Say, 'Do you have any knowledge that you can produce for us? You follow not except assumption, and you are not but falsifying.'” (Al-An'am: 148) When they claimed Allah commanded their nudity during circulating the Kabbah, He stated: “And when they commit an immorality, they say, 'We found our fathers doing it, and Allah has ordered us to do it.' Say, 'Indeed, Allah does not order immorality. Do you say about Allah that which you do not know?'” (Al-A'raf: 28) In emphasizing the need for audible evidence in refuting false claims, Allah says, “Or have they taken other gods besides Him? Say, [O Muhammad], 'Produce your proof. This [Quran] is the message for those with me and the message for those before me.' But most of them do not know the truth, so they are turning away.” (Al-Anbiya: 24) When some Jews claimed that Allah had forbidden them certain foods and based their claim on the Torah, Allah addressed them by saying: “Say, [O Muhammad], 'Ao bring the Torah and recite it, if you should be truthful.'” (Aal-Imran: 93)

3. Historical Evidence:

This type of evidence is based on well-documented historical accounts or visible remnants of past civilizations, indicating their strength, influence, and achievements. Allah says, “Say, [O Muhammad], 'Have you considered that which you invoke besides Allah? Show me what they have created of the earth; or did they have partnership in [creation of] the heavens? Bring me a scripture [revealed] before this or a [remaining] trace of knowledge, if you should be truthful.'” (Al-Ahqaf: 4) This “trace of knowledge” refers to historical evidence.

The Quran also mentions historical evidence in the story of Qarun, who attributed his wealth to his own knowledge. Allah says, “Did he not know that Allah had destroyed before him of generations those who were greater than him in power and greater in accumulation [of wealth]?” (Al-Qasas: 78) This type of evidence is also highlighted in the story of the people of 'Ad: “As for 'Ad, they were arrogant upon the earth without right and said, 'Who is greater than us in strength?' Did they not consider that Allah, who created them, was greater than them in strength? But they were rejecting Our signs.” (Fussilat: 15)

4. Rational or Theoretical Evidence:

This evidence is based on logical reasoning, starting with examining matters and deducing their validity or falsehood through reason and logic. The Quran challenges polytheists to provide rational evidence for their idolatry, saying: “Or have they taken gods besides Him? Say, 'Produce your proof.'” (Al-Anbiya: 24) Additionally, Allah states, “Is there a deity with Allah? Say, 'Produce your proof, if you should be truthful.'” (An-Naml: 64) These forms of evidence confirm whether an idea is acceptable or rejected based on reason, logic, history, and sensory observation.

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(1) Lisan al-Arab, by Ibn Manzur (13/ 51).

(2) Al-Tarifat, by Al-Jurjani, p. 44.

(3) Reason and Knowledge in the Holy Quran, by Dr. Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, p. 271.

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