The rise of contemporary atheism in the East was a fleeting phenomenon that never managed to take root in the deeply religious soil of the region. The climate of freedom that Egypt witnessed in the early 20th century allowed these ideas to express themselves boldly without fear of punishment or threats to life or livelihood. Consequently, they appeared abrupt and shocking, and the public's reaction was one of indifference and neglect, allowing these ideas to fade away quietly without noise, memory, or support.
“Darwinism” Before Atheism
The introduction of Charles Darwin's ideas and his theory of evolution marked the true beginning of contemporary atheism in the Western world, and its echoes eventually reached the Arab region. Darwin's theory, published in 1859, posits that all species of living organisms arise and evolve through the process of natural selection of inherited mutations that increase an individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. By 1860, English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term “Darwinism” to describe the philosophy of evolution, with “survival of the fittest” becoming its most famous slogan.
In the Arab world, the first person to discuss “Darwinism” was the Lebanese doctor and writer Shibli Shumayyil (d. 1917). Later, Ismail Mazhar translated Darwin's book “On the Origin of Species,” followed by Salama Musa and others. These voices paved the way for atheism. Important platforms that showcased Darwin's theory and ideas included the magazine “Al-Muqtataf,” founded by Faris Nimr and Yaqub Sarruf, and the newspaper "Al-Shams,” owned by Isber Al-Gharib. In 1910, Shumayyil published his book “Falsafat al-Nushu wa al Irtiqa,” advocating for atheism, tolerance of differing opinions, freedom of thought, and courage in expression. Lebanese writer Hanna Nimr also authored books on “Darwinism,” and so did Salama Musa.
In her scholarly work “Reading Darwin in Arabic,” 1860-1950, published in English in 2013 and translated into Arabic in 2017, researcher Marwa Elshakry confirmed that the magazine “Al-Muqtataf,” which began in 1876, contributed to spreading “Darwinism” by focusing on scientific writings and presenting them to the public. During this period, a middle class of intellectuals emerged, and demand for journalism increased, with around 180,000 copies of Arabic newspapers sold in Egypt. This led to the spread of many modern scientific ideas and theories and the rise of debates around them. By 1878, discussions about “Darwinism” emerged, transferring European intellectual and cultural debates about the theory to the Arab world, until Shibli Shumayyil adopted it in the Arab context.
The reformist movement engaged with Darwin's theory, referring to it as “evolutionary thought,” and some reformers opposed “Darwinism” because most of its proponents and promoters were Christians, graduates, or teachers from the Syrian Evangelical College. The Islamic reformist movement saw it as a missionary aspect disguised as science to promote its ideas. However, this also led to increased discussions about the relationship between religion and science, especially with the emergence of atheism among “Arab Darwinists.”
Although Shumayyil openly declared his atheism, he maintained a relationship of friendship and respect with Sheikh Muhammad Rashid Rida, who allowed the publication of a letter from Shumayyil praising the Quran and the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). In this letter, Shumayyil acknowledged Muhammad's greatness as a man, though not as a prophet. He said, “You look at Muhammad as a prophet and make him great, while I look at him as a man and make him greater. Although we are diametrically opposed in religious belief or principle, what unites us is a broad mind and sincerity in speech, which is the strongest bond between us for affection.”
When Shumayyil died in 1917, Rashid Rida eulogized him in an article mentioning many of his virtues and confirming his atheism. He said, “Shumayyil was unique and rare in his comprehensive knowledge, works, thoughts, and ethics. What compels us to translate his work is that he was one of the sincere advocates of civil reform and social renewal.” He then said, “He was the first to introduce Darwin's theory in Arabic, defended it, and fought for it, while religious men, especially Catholics whom Shumayyil was raised among, considered this theory as a cornerstone of disbelief. Not content with that, the man openly declared atheism both verbally and in writing. No one before him, as far as we know, had dared to do so, despite the many whose beliefs deviated through modern European education.”
Rashid Rida further noted the Muslims' reaction to Shumayyil's atheism, saying, “Muslims do not see his departure from his original faith as distancing him from them because it is not their faith. They view him as a non-Muslim doctor and social scientist who, despite his different beliefs, was closer to tolerance and fairness due to his free and independent thinking.”
The Challenge of Atheism
One of the most significant cultural and intellectual battles over atheism in the East revolved around the question "Why Am I an Atheist?” initiated by Ismail Adham in 1937. This message, published in a booklet by a magazine, sparked numerous scientific and intellectual responses. Adham stated: “I am an atheist, and my soul is at peace with this atheism. I do not differ from a devout believer in this regard. My atheism began as a mere idea, and over time, it took over my emotions until it became a conviction.”
Adham's message aimed to counter a lecture by the physician and poet Ahmed Zaki Abu Shadi published in late 1936 under the title “The Divinity Doctrine,” in which he discussed the compatibility between science and religion. Abu Shadi asserted: “The Divinity Doctrine, in light of Islam, does not contradict sound science or pure psychological feelings. It is far from fear, superstition, or ignorance.” In his message, Adham tried to establish the origin of existence based on what he called the “law of chance,” which is a weak logic. Consequently, numerous responses followed, including one from Abu Shadi in a booklet titled “Why Am I a Believer?” He began by saying, “Islam has three great advantages. Anyone who fails to recognize them contributes to the loss of Islam itself: inheriting the virtues of previous religions, being based on reason and science, and its extreme democracy, free from priesthood and clergy.”
Mohammad Farid Wajdi, editor-in-chief of “Al-Azhar,” wrote an article titled “Why Is He an Atheist?” affirming the right to differ and stating that publicizing atheism, although it might offend believers' feelings, does not undermine the Islamic faith. However, the most important response to Ismail Adham came from the renowned scholar Sheikh Mustafa Sabri, the leading scholar of the Ottoman Empire. Sabri, provoked by Adham's message, subsequently published one of his most significant works, “The Position of Reason, Science, and the World Towards the Lord of the Worlds and His Messengers,” in four volumes. Additionally, Dr. Mohamed Gamal El-Fendi, a prominent astronomer, wrote a book titled “Why I Am a Believer?”
We refer here to what the critic Raja'a Al-Naqqash wrote about the character of Adham in his book “Reflections on Man,” where he questioned Adham's claim of having a Ph.D. in mathematics, doubted his proficiency in foreign languages, and asserted that Adham presented a false image of himself. Al-Naqqash stated that Adham faced neglect from people and suffered from poverty, and when he failed to impress people with his lies, he decided to challenge them with his atheism. Raja Al-Naqqash said, “Many do not know the true nature of the man even now, and the stories written about his life are closer to myths, with no evidence to support them except Adham himself.”
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