Unexpected Ascension to Power
The Caliphate of Córdoba, initiated by the distinguished Umayyad prince Abd al-Rahman al-Nasir, offers a series of historical lessons and accounts of civilization, both of which are worthy of study and reflection. He came to power unexpectedly and without a system; his grandfather, Prince Abdullah ibn Muhammad, appointed him after his father's death while he was still young and appointed him over his uncles and the uncles of his father, without facing opposition from any of them. It was as if the dire conditions of Al-Andalus had conspired with the notion of kingship and endorsed it, as they appeared to be in their final throes, not enticing anyone to contest a kingship fraught with danger and signaling its demise!
The Dire Conditions of Al-Andalus (300 AH / 912 AD)
This was in the year 300 AH / 912 AD, at a time when the young caliph, who was just twenty-two springs old, had control over only one-sixth of Al-Andalus, while five-sixths were under the sway of rebels and insurgents who fought amongst themselves for control. Ibn Idhārī described Al-Andalus at that time as "an ember that blazes, and a fire that rages; filled with discord and hypocrisy." Meanwhile, to the north, the Spanish Christians were waiting, poised to pounce on the Islamic state, with nothing preventing them except the persistent internal conflicts of the Muslims that showed no signs of cooling. As for the south, in the Moroccan border, there were the Fatimids, who had established their caliphate and unleashed their ambitions towards Al-Andalus, where the waning Umayyad emirate resided, and towards Baghdad and Cairo, where the faltering Abbasid caliphate was located.
Restoration and Expansion
The young prince seemed to breathe new life into the body of Al-Andalus; it cast off its weary garments, and his armies marched through the east and west of the land, restoring its unity and integrity, reclaiming much of what his forefathers had lost at the hands of the Spanish Christian kingdoms. He also annexed Ceuta and Melilla at the strait of Gibraltar, along with lands from North Africa, thereby pressuring the Fatimids, curbing their encroachments, and instilling despair in them. It was no wonder that they shortly turned their attention to Egypt, seeking to reconcile themselves with it in place of their dreams of Morocco and Al-Andalus. Al-Nasir spent sixteen years in this endeavor, at which point he declared himself caliph, and Al-Andalus a caliphate in the year 316 AH, since the title of "prince" no longer sufficed for his ambitions and aspirations.
A New Caliphate
This was a new innovation in the established Islamic system; the people of Sunni Islam had only recognized a single caliphate until that time. However, the scholars of the era justified the caliph's aspirations, as the Abbasid caliphate had become a faint shadow since the Turks took control over it (232–334 AH), while the legitimacy of the Fatimid caliphate was not recognized from the start by the Sunni Muslims. What caught the attention of historians was that Abd al-Rahman al-Nasir began his jihad against the northern Christian kingdoms before unifying his own kingdom, having only ruled for a single year. Al-Nasir drew the attention of Muslims to the more urgent duty that their swords should face the common threat which posed no trust or mercy to those among them who identified as Muslims.
Commitment to Jihad and Religion
"Al-Nasir was enamored with conquest, was keen on his religion, and paid heed to the advice of scholars. When a certain scholar advised him harshly, the jurist of Al-Andalus, Al-Mundir Ibn Said, reproached him in the Friday sermon for excessive spending on the construction of Al-Zahra and its palaces. When Al-Nasir returned home, he said: 'By God! Al-Mundir specifically addressed me in his sermon, and there was no one else he meant, he reproached me excessively and did not conduct himself properly in advising me; he disturbed my heart and almost struck me with his staff!' A man suggested removing him from that position, but Al-Nasir responded: 'Could someone like Al-Mundir Ibn Said, given his virtue, goodness, and knowledge, be removed? To be removed to please someone misled and misguided? This will not happen, and I would be ashamed before God not to have someone like Al-Mundir, in his piety and honesty, intercede for me in the Friday prayer!'
The Reign of Al-Hakam Al-Mu'tasr (350-366 AH)
The reign of Al-Hakam Al-Mu'tasr (350-366 AH) continued the glories of his father, imposing the authority of the state over the Christian kingdoms of northern Spain. Delegations from Europe came to him in succession, and the stature of Córdoba reached great heights, as did Al-Zahra, the capital he completed building after his father's death. Al-Hakam left his young son Hisham Al-Mu'ayyad Billah in 366 AH, who was twelve years old at the time, so his mother Subh Al-Bashkensiyah took over the regency. Soon, the ambitious prince Al-Mansur Muhammad Ibn Abu Amer (died 392 AH) was appointed as minister with the help of the young caliph's mother. He eliminated his rivals and then decided to place restrictions on the caliph and his mother, seizing power for himself. He then inherited it to his sons Abdul Malik and subsequently Abdul Rahman, in what became known as the Amiri state. The weakened caliph was described as reckless and lacking intelligence, and Al-Mansur was excused for his control over him.
The Military Achievements of Al-Mansur
Al-Mansur was a man of great strength and fortunate lineage. What could one expect from a man who launched 57 campaigns against the Christian kingdoms of the north, never defeated in any of them, obsessively devoted to jihad to the extent that he would shake off the dust of every battle he engaged in? He gathered a portion of that dust and bequeathed it to be buried with him in his grave!
The Amiri State
Abdul Malik Ibn Al-Mansur was wise like his father and shared his demeanor; however, his brother Abdul Rahman (who took over in 399 AH) was very reckless, committing a foolish act that brought chaos upon the entire state. He forced the imprisoned caliph Hisham to appoint him as his successor, which angered the Umayyads, leading them to kill him and appoint one of their own. But he could not enjoy his rule, for others from his own house revolted against him, seeking support from the Christian north, with some even conceding territories to ensure their neutrality or to gain their support, which ultimately led to the downfall of the caliphate in 422 AH.
Contributions to Civilization
The attention given to civilization reached great heights, as the enlightened ruler al-Mu'tamid collected books, with approximately 400,000 volumes in his library. Few books in his library were without notes in his handwriting. The scope of intellectual freedom for non-Muslims widened, and the atmosphere allowed for religious debate, which resulted in pioneering scholarly work in comparative religion by Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi in his book "The Separation of Sects, Desires, and Creeds."
The University of Córdoba
Al-Mu'tamid transformed the mosque of Córdoba into a university, predating al-Azhar University and all universities in Europe. Students from both Muslims and European scholars flocked there, making Córdoba, as the scholar al-Razi described it, "the mother of cities and the heart of al-Andalus." Al-Mu'tamid constructed his new capital, al-Zahra, next to Córdoba to befit the caliph and his entourage, competing with Baghdad and Cairo.
Criticisms and Challenges
Despite this glory, the politics of the era faced criticism: the caliph held the power exclusively. When the chamberlain al-Mansur and his sons took control, they committed acts that harmed the state later on, as they eliminated capable individuals out of fear of being overthrown. This might have been a characteristic of the era, possibly resulting from their struggles to unify the state and suppress revolutions.
The System of Hereditary Succession
The system of hereditary succession was established since the time of Muawiya, but it could bring forth capable individuals; however, the love of a father for his son could ruin the state, as happened when the caliph al-Mu'tamid appointed his young son to rule, leaving the dissenting scholars with no choice but to remain silent.
Ethnic Tensions within the Caliphate
The caliphate could not find a unifying formula for the conflicting elements of the nation, consisting of Arabs and Berbers. It excluded them from the administration and relied on the Slavs in the army since the time of al-Mu'tamid, leading to significant dangers. Some historians estimated their number in the palace to be more than thirteen thousand, while in the city of al-Zahra, there were over three thousand young men and six thousand seven hundred fifty female slaves. Arab resentment grew, and the Berbers waited for an opportunity against the state. Indeed, reconciling these discordant elements and their conflicting interests was a difficult task for a state fighting on all fronts.
Lavish Spending and Its Consequences
It is surprising that the lavish al-Zahra could not withstand the resentments of the civil wars in the later days of the state and fell as if it had never existed. It is also important to note the growing influence of women in the palace; this did not harm the caliphs' strength, but became detrimental when the desires of the slave woman Beshkansiya Subh took control, negatively impacting her son and fueling conflict among the state's elite. This ended with Ibn Amer gaining dominance and taking control over her and her son.
Intellectual and Cultural Flourishing
The attention given to civilization reached great heights, as the enlightened ruler al-Mu'tamid collected books, with approximately 400,000 volumes in his library. Few books in his library were without notes in his handwriting. The scope of intellectual freedom for non-Muslims widened, and the atmosphere allowed for religious debate, which resulted in pioneering scholarly work in comparative religion by Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi in his book "The Separation of Sects, Desires, and Creeds."
The University of Córdoba
Al-Mu'tamid transformed the mosque of Córdoba into a university, predating al-Azhar University and all universities in Europe. Students from both Muslims and European scholars flocked there, making Córdoba, as the scholar al-Razi described it, "the mother of cities and the heart of al-Andalus." Al-Mu'tamid constructed his new capital, al-Zahra, next to Córdoba to befit the caliph and his entourage, competing with Baghdad and Cairo.
Criticisms and Challenges
Despite this glory, the politics of the era faced criticism: the caliph held the power exclusively. When the chamberlain al-Mansur and his sons took control, they committed acts that harmed the state later on, as they eliminated capable individuals out of fear of being overthrown. This might have been a characteristic of the era, possibly resulting from their struggles to unify the state and suppress revolutions.
The System of Hereditary Succession
The system of hereditary succession was established since the time of Muawiya, but it could bring forth capable individuals; however, the love of a father for his son could ruin the state, as happened when the caliph al-Mu'tamid appointed his young son to rule, leaving the dissenting scholars with no choice but to remain silent.
Ethnic Tensions within the Caliphate
The caliphate could not find a unifying formula for the conflicting elements of the nation, consisting of Arabs and Berbers. It excluded them from the administration and relied on the Slavs in the army since the time of al-Mu'tamid, leading to significant dangers. Some historians estimated their number in the palace to be more than thirteen thousand, while in the city of al-Zahra, there were over three thousand young men and six thousand seven hundred fifty female slaves. Arab resentment grew, and the Berbers waited for an opportunity against the state. Indeed, reconciling these discordant elements and their conflicting interests was a difficult task for a state fighting on all fronts.
Al-Mu'tamid and his son excessively spent enormous amounts of money on construction. It is surprising that the lavish al-Zahra could not withstand the resentments of the civil wars in the later days of the state and fell as if it had never existed. It is also important to note the growing influence of women in the palace; this did not harm the caliphs' strength but became detrimental when the desires of the slave woman Beshkansiya Subh took control, negatively impacting her son and fueling conflict among the state's elite. This ended with Ibn Amer gaining dominance and taking control over her and her son.
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