Gamal Khattab
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Islamophobia
The irrational dread or antagonism towards Islam and its followers is what is known as Islamophobia’ and it continues to be a growing problem globally. It is important to recognize that significant impacts of Islamophobia are based on ill-founded beliefs of history, political language, and media images. To effectively tackle such an issue, promote unity, and create acceptance among different communities, one must understand where Islamophobia originates from. In this paper we examine the history that shaped it, why it happens, its effects on individuals and society at large; as well as countermeasures through education awareness programs and community participation aiming at overcoming it.
Historical Origins
Islamophobia has its roots in the initial interaction of Islamic and Christian civilizations. The expansion of the Islamic empire into Europe and the subsequent Crusades in the medieval period fueled animosity and distrust. Many Christian writers and theologians labeled it as a religion based on heresy or violence, which would remain valid for several centuries later (1).
The expulsion of Muslims and Jews from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492 marked the culmination of the Reconquista in Spain and further entrenched anti-Muslim sentiments. The statutes of "Limpieza de sangre" or purity of blood used during the Spanish Inquisition were still discriminatory against every person with even an iota of Muslim or Jewish ancestry, even after they became Christians (1).
Colonialism and Orientalism
The age of European colonialism gave new dimensions to Islamophobia. Each European power in the world, in its pursuit of dominance, portrayed Muslim societies as backward and uncivilized and thus justified their colonial rule and exploitation. Said has criticized this portrayal by Orientalist scholars and writers as serving to reinforce Western superiority and control over the "Orient" (1).
Colonial administrators and missionaries often represented Islam as an impediment to development and progress. Such a representation carried well into the 20th century and informed Western views about states that had a Muslim majority.
The Modern Era: Cold War and Beyond
New forms of Islamophobia appeared most particularly in the geopolitical rivalry framework during the Cold War era. It was particularly after the Iranian Revolution in 1979 and the hostage crisis at the American Embassy in Tehran. Ayatollah Khomeini and the Islamic Republic of Iran became symbols in the Western imagination of a global Islamic threat (2).
The Soviet-Afghan War further complicated Western perceptions of Islam, as the US and its allies supported Afghan mujahideen fighters against the Soviet Union, thus fueling fears of Islamic militancy. Eventually, the rise of the Taliban and the presence of foreign fighters in Afghanistan contributed to the perception of Islam as violent and extremist by nature (2).
Post-9/11 and the War on Terror
The events on September 11, 2001, marked a turning point in the history of Islamophobia. Anti-Muslim attitudes started to appear in droves both in the United States and worldwide, consequent to the attack by al-Qaeda. The succeeding "War on Terror" perpetuated these views even further, with Muslims often stereotyped as possible terrorists or people who sincerely sympathize with terrorists (3).
The USA PATRIOT Act and the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security initiated increased surveillance and profiling of Muslim communities. The invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the prolonged war in Afghanistan further established any connection of Islam with violence and terror. c) Islamophobia within the Media
Media has majorly played a role in shaping the public perception of Islam and Muslims. It is sensationalist upon coverage after terrorist attacks and extremist groups, mostly snuffing out positive stories that relate to Muslim communities. This leads to disproportionate representation, contributing to stereotype perpetuation and prejudices.
It is not contained to the fringes, as it has seeped into the mainstream of political discourse. Anti-Muslim sentiment has been used by many politicians and public figures as one way to advance their causes and garner their support. The normalization of Islamophobia comes with serious ramifications for both individual Muslims and collective Muslim communities.
Islamophobia in Europe
In recent times, Islamophobia has risen very strongly in Europe. The influx of refugees from Muslim-majority countries, and terrorist attacks, coupled with facing economic challenges, all combined to fuel anti-Muslim sentiment. Far-right political parties and movements took advantage of prevalent fears to advance restrictive immigration policies and cultural assimilation.
Laws in some European countries have targeted aspects of Muslim life like the use of headscarves and minarets. This is being done under the guise of preserving secularism and national identity but in actuality is far from such a noble end as is shown by the perception of many of these actions as being discriminatory.
Islamophobia and Racism
Islamophobia is inextricably linked with racism. It frequently manifests itself through attacks on people according to their perceived ethnicity, appearance, or cultural behavior. This crossing between religious and racial discrimination has brought the understanding to some scholars that Islamophobia needs to be contextualized as a form of cultural racism.
Islamophobia has a deep impact on Muslims, relating to educational or work opportunities and even to social services. It creates an environment of fear and exclusion that may result in severe mental health problems or social isolation. 4
Combating Islamophobia
The struggle against Islamophobia must reach its roots and manifestations. Education and awareness raise the level of stereotype challenge and further understanding. Interfaith dialogues, and community engagement initiatives, may serve to foster positive relations between Muslims and non-Muslims.
Policy measures also play a very important role herein. Anti-discrimination laws should be enacted and applied by governments to protect religious minorities. Media organizations have to make an effort for balanced, accurate reporting about Muslim communities. Political leaders should condemn Islamophobia and create inclusive policies.
Addressing the impacts of Islamophobia at both the personal and societal levels mean understanding its roots. We will continue to study its genesis, both historically and in the modern day, and analyze areas where it converges with issues of racism for the furtherance of much-needed strategies to combat this prejudice in our world. Only collective action can help create a more inclusive, just world for all.
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Sources
(1) Islamophobia | Meaning, History, & Portrayal of Muslims. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamophobia.
(2) The Roots of American Islamophobia | American Experience | PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/taken-hostage-roots-american-islamophobia/.
(3) American Islamophobia: Understanding the Roots and Rise of Fear. https://www.zinnedproject.org/materials/american-islamophobia.
(4) Islamophobia | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. https://oxfordre.com/religion/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-685.
