Numerous verses in the Qur'an mandate obedience to the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and adherence to his Sunnah. Among these are: "And if you disagree over anything, refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you should believe in Allah and the Last Day" (An-Nisa: 59), "He who obeys the Messenger has obeyed Allah" (An-Nisa: 80), and "And whatever the Messenger has given you – take; and what he has forbidden you – refrain from" (Al-Hashr: 7).

The Companions revered the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and emulated his behavior and actions. They loved what he loved and abandoned what he abandoned. For instance, when he adopted a gold or silver ring, the people did the same. When he saw this, he discarded it, saying, "I will never wear it again," and then adopted a silver ring, prompting the people to do the same ⁽¹⁾.

Recording Hadith

The Sunnah was not documented during the lifetime of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) to prevent confusion with the Qur'an and to avoid giving Islam’s enemies an opportunity to cast doubt on the religion. This explains why the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) prohibited writing down his sayings during his life by stating, "Do not take down anything from me, and he who took down anything from me except the Qur'an, he should efface that."⁽²⁾ However, he allowed people to narrate his sayings and warned that anyone who intentionally lies about him will face severe punishment.

When the conflict between Ali and Muawiya erupted in 40 AH, resulting in widespread bloodshed, divisions, and the emergence of various sects and ideologies, each group tried to interpret the Qur'an to suit their claims. They began fabricating hadiths to support their views. The Shiites were among the most prolific in fabricating hadiths about the virtues of Ali and the faults of the Companions, leading hadith scholars to disregard their narrations. Despite his Shiite leanings, Ibn Abi Al-Hadid, in his "Commentary on Nahj al-Balaghah," highlighted many of the hadiths fabricated by the Shiites, which they circulated about the virtues of Ali and the faults of the Companions. He commented, "All these have no basis among our scholars, and none of them are confirmed by the hadith scholars. They are not recognized by the hadith scholars but are exclusively transmitted by the Shiites."⁽³⁾

Enemies of Islam who could not openly oppose it began to undermine it from within, a tactic known as zandaqa (heresy). Many of these individuals, particularly from Persia, disguised themselves as Shiites to subvert Islam or were new converts unable to completely abandon their previous religious influences. They sought to retaliate against Islam by corrupting its doctrines and tarnishing its virtues. Their most fertile ground for subversion was the Sunnah, where they operated under the guise of Shiism, asceticism, mysticism, or sometimes philosophy and wisdom. They extensively fabricated hadiths about personal virtues, places, and stories of sermons and asceticism, prompting the early Abbasid state to crack down on heresy with executions and persecutions. ⁽⁴⁾

The formal documentation of hadith began with Caliph Umar ibn Abdulaziz (99-101 AH), who instructed all provinces to compile and document hadiths in a book, saying, "Look for the hadiths of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and compile them and preserve them." He entrusted the task to the renowned scholar of his time, Muhammad ibn Shihab Al-Zuhri (died 124 AH), who compiled the Sunnah into several volumes. These were copied and distributed to different regions. ⁽⁵⁾

The practice of documenting hadith became widespread in the second century AH across all regions, with prominent hadith scholars emerging, such as Saeed ibn Abi Aroba (died 156 AH), Al-Awza’i (died 157 AH), Shu’ba ibn Al-Hajjaj (died 160 AH), Sufyan Al-Thawri (died 161 AH), Hammad ibn Salama (died 167 AH), Anas ibn Malik (died 179 AH), Abdullah ibn Al-Mubarak (died 181 AH), and Sufyan ibn ‘Uyaynah (died 198 AH), among others.

The third century AH is considered the golden age of the Sunnah, with leading hadith scholars advancing the method of compiling hadith collections in the form of “Musnad” (organized by the Companion who narrated them), such as the Musnad of Ibn Abi Shaybah and the Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. However, these collections included both authentic and less reliable hadiths, prompting hadith scholars to focus solely on authentic narrations, as seen in the works of Al-Bukhari (died 256 AH) and Muslim (died 261 AH), followed by many other scholars of hadith such as Ibn Majah (died 273 AH), Abu Dawood (died 275 AH), Al-Tirmidhi (died 279 AH), and Al-Nasa’i (died 303 AH).⁽⁶⁾

Criticism and Authentication of Hadith

Hadith scholars made significant strides in the critical evaluation of hadith, distinguishing authentic narrations from fabricated ones, and subjecting hadiths to strict criteria to determine their authenticity. They developed comprehensive methodologies for verifying the chain of transmission (isnad) and scrutinizing the narrators' reliability and integrity. Key principles included:

1. Isnad (Chain of Transmission): Ensuring an unbroken chain of reliable narrators leading back to the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him). They accepted only those chains whose narrators were known and trusted. Ibn Sirin said, "They did not ask about the isnad. But when the fitnah (trial) occurred, they said: Name your men to us. So they would look to the people of the Sunnah and take their hadith, and they would look to the people of innovation and not take their hadith." Ibn Al-Mubarak said, "The isnad is part of the religion, and were it not for the isnad, anyone could say whatever they wanted."⁽⁷⁾

2. Critique of Narrators: Scholars extensively studied the lives, histories, and hidden aspects of narrators to identify any fabricators and what they fabricated. They established principles for identifying forged hadiths and compiled works on unreliable narrators, as well as criteria for evaluating the text (matn) of hadiths, such as awkward wording, flawed meaning, appeals to desire or fame, contradictions with established facts, or conflicts with the Qur'an.

Sciences of Hadith

Hadith scholars developed organized principles for accepting narrations, which evolved into independent disciplines, including:

• 'Ilm al-Mustalah al-Hadith (Science of Hadith Terminology): This science classifies hadith into categories like sahih (authentic), hasan (good), and da'if (weak), and subdivides these categories. It also establishes the necessary conditions for narrators and narrations, identifies defects and irregularities in hadiths, and outlines how hadiths are transmitted, recorded, and the etiquettes of the transmitter and the student of hadith. This field represents the most reliable and scientifically grounded framework for the narration and reporting of Hadith, leaving no room for doubt or verification beyond its established principles, and has had a significant impact on other sciences.
• 'Ilm al-Jarh wa al-Ta'dil (Science of Criticism and Praise): This is a field of study that investigates the conditions of narrators, focusing on their trustworthiness, integrity, accuracy, or lack thereof. The development of this science stemmed from scholars' commitment to distinguishing authentic Hadith from others. This field has no equivalent in the history of other nations. Scholars devoted themselves to classifying works in "Jarh and Ta'dil" (criticism and approval), with early contributors including Yahya ibn Ma'in, Abu Zur'ah, Abu Hatim al-Razi, and Ibn Hibban, among others. Additionally, works were produced on "The Trustworthy," "The Weak," "The Abandoned," "The Fabricated," and so on. The field of Jarh and Ta'dil continued to evolve with further additions, commentaries, and refinements over many centuries.

The meticulous efforts of hadith scholars in documenting and refining the Sunnah using rigorous scientific and critical methodologies have impressed fair-minded orientalists and others with the accuracy of their findings.

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(1) Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani: Fath al-Bari: The Book of Clothing, Chapter: Silver Rings, vol. 10, p. 330, (5528).

(2) Explanation by al-Nawawi on Sahih Muslim: The Book of Asceticism and Piety, Chapter: Verification in Hadith, vol. 15, p. 419, (3004).

(3) Explanation of Nahj al-Balagha, edited by Muhammad Abu al-Fadl Ibrahim, Iissa al-Babi al-Halabi Edition, Cairo, 1959, vol. 1, p. 135.

(4) Dr. Mustafa al-Sibai: The Sunnah and Its Place in Islamic Legislation, Islamic Office, 3rd ed., Damascus, 1982, p. 79.

(5) al-Dhahabi: Siyar A'lam al-Nubala, vol. 5, p. 328, Fath al-Bari, vol. 1, pp. 194 – 195.

(6) The Sunnah and Its Place in Islamic Legislation, p. 105.

(7) Introduction to Sahih Muslim, Chapter: The Chain of Narration is Part of Religion, and Narration Must Be from Trustworthy Sources, and the Permissibility of Criticizing Narrators as Not Being Forbidden Gossip*, vol. 1, p. 16.

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