In the previous article, we talked about the assassination attempt on Sheikh Uthman dan Fodio, which served as a catalyst for the transformation of his preaching, and the attempt of King Gobir Bawa to appease him afterward. Sheikh Uthman utilized this opportunity to set conditions to improve the situation of Muslims in the kingdom, significantly enhancing his influence and leading many to join him. This hastened the confrontation phase during King Yunfa's reign, beginning with Sheikh Uthman's migration, the king's declaration of war on him, and the group's pledge of allegiance to Sheikh Uthman to lead them in repelling the king's aggression.

Wars of State Foundation

Immediately after the allegiance was pledged, Sheikh Uthman laid out the main features of his state, appointing his brother, the esteemed scholar, Abdullah dan Fodio, as his first minister, his friend Umar al-Kamuni as his second minister, Sheikh Muhammad Thimbo as the chief judge and prayer leader, and Muhammad bin al-Hasan, known as Sa’dar, as the army commander. ⁽¹⁾

The soldiers then worked diligently to dig a trench to protect themselves from any surprise attacks. ⁽²⁾ Soon after, the Battle of “Kutu” occurred in May 1804, which Sheikh Uthman's followers described as the decisive day when the two armies met for being the greatest battle between the two parties. Allah granted victory to Sheikh Uthman and his group in this battle, leading Yunfa to flee, abandoning his wealth and kingdom. He retreated to a place called Tanbagark, gathered some supporters, and fled to the far reaches of the land, where they camped. Sheikh Uthman’s group pursued them until they defeated them at a place called Gando. ⁽³⁾

After a short period, Sheikh Uthman settled there, and his son Muhammad Bello built a formidable fortress ⁽⁴⁾ to be near Gobir. Indeed, this strategy proved effective as he conquered the towns and subdued the forts around them within less than four years, eventually entering the capital, Al-Qadau, after three battles. Gobir was captured in the last of these battles, and King Yunfa and his men were killed in 1808. ⁽⁵⁾ This victory was seen by Sheikh Uthman's followers as the greatest conquest, securing the entire country and establishing the state's stability.

Expansion Conquests

The kings of the Hausa lands did not cease their hostility toward Sheikh Uthman’s preaching, persecuting the Fulani under their control. This initiated a phase of expansion for Sheikh Uthman's state across these kingdoms. His army was not organized in the modern sense but instead followed a method where he entrusted leaders of his army or local individuals with the mission of conquest along with their local allies. This method proved highly effective, leading to the capture of the Kingdom of Kebbi after a siege, causing its Sultan to flee in April 1805. ⁽⁶⁾ Subsequently, the Kingdom of Kano was conquered after a fierce battle in which its king was killed in 1807. Other kingdoms, including Katsina, Daura, Zaria, Bauchi, and Gombe, among many others, fell until Sheikh Uthman's state encompassed all seven ancient Hausa kingdoms. ⁽⁷⁾ His state became renowned as the Islamic Caliphate of Sokoto, named after its capital.

The Scholarly Debate Between Sheikh Uthman’s Group and Their Opponents

As with any reform movement, Sheikh Uthman's faced resistance from some contemporaries, who questioned its piety and knowledge. Muhammad Bello documented several correspondences in “Infaq al-Maysur” between Sheikh Uthman's group, represented by himself and his uncle Abdullah, and several of their opponents. These correspondences claimed that their reform movement was not based on true religion but deviated from the customs of the local people, forcing them into their beliefs and practices. Sheikh Uthman’s group provided detailed scholarly arguments, citing past and contemporary scholars—especially Maliki jurists—to justify their actions and refute the opponents' claims with definitive responses. ⁽⁸⁾

The Political System

The caliphate was the system of governance from the first day of Sheikh Uthman’s state. His followers pledged allegiance to him—after consulting among themselves—on obedience and adherence to the Quran and Sunnah. He established the principle of shura (consultation) in choosing the next caliph ⁽⁹⁾ making shura fundamental in appointing any position within the state. ⁽¹⁰⁾ The primary condition for all of this was adherence to the Quran and Sunnah, avoiding whims and innovations. ⁽¹¹⁾ He detailed the principles and foundations of governance, setting up the political, judicial, and administrative systems of the state. He authored a book titled “The Difference Between the Governance of Muslims and Non-Muslims.”

The Cultural and Educational System

Given the scholarly nature prevalent among the Fulani, it was expected that the state's stability would lead to a flourishing of educational and cultural aspects. The Mosque University of Sokoto became one of the most renowned universities in the world at that time. Many mosques were built during his reign, serving as universities. ⁽¹²⁾ Despite Sheikh Uthman’s engagement in preaching and conquests, he produced over a hundred scholars who reached the level of ijtihad (independent reasoning). ⁽¹³⁾ His extensive scholarly legacy exceeded a hundred works, ⁽¹⁴⁾ alongside the contributions of his brother, sons, and students, and whoever followed their paths throughout the state’s existence.

Conclusion

Sheikh Uthman’s state remained cohesive for a considerable period under his successors. Eventually, the British discovered these lands and initiated what Al-Aluri called the “Cold Crusades,” which included missionary campaigns. ⁽¹⁵⁾ They cultivated followers in these lands, instilling in them animosity toward Islam, distinguishing them from the rest of the population in terms of education, services, employment, and other means of livelihood. They sought to increase their numbers to strengthen their fight against the Islamic state, which lasted for nearly a century until it officially fell to British occupation in 1903. However, its religious, scholarly, and cultural impacts remained present in West and Central Africa. Its political presence continues today, though much diminished, in some northern Nigerian states within the federal system. It served as a model for Muslims across Africa in modern times. ⁽¹⁶⁾

May Allah have mercy on Sheikh Uthman and his companions and reward them abundantly for the millions of Muslims who came to know Islam in these lands through them.

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1. Islam in Nigeria by Al-Alory, p. 156.
2. Infaq al-Maysur fi Tarikh Bilad al-Takrur, by Sheikh Muhammad Bello p. 64.
3. , pp. 66–71.
4. Islam in Nigeria, p. 160.
5. Infaq al-Maysur, p. 109.
6. , p. 132. This book chronicles all the battles that took place during Sheikh Uthman’s life and up to the establishment of the state.
7. The Hausa and Their Neighbors, Mahdi Adamu, within the book General History of Africa, Vol. 4, p. 273.
8. Infaq al-Maysur, starting from p. 114. It begins with a debate between the Sheikh and Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi, also mentioned by Al-Aluri from p. 173.
9. Al-Ghaith al-Wabl fi Sirat al-Imam al-Adl, p. 37.
10. Usul al-Adl li-Wulat al-Umur wa-Ahl al-Fadl, Uthman dan Fodio, p. 4.
11. Usul al-Wilayah wa-Shurutaha, Uthman dan Fodio, p. 2.
12. Islam in Nigeria, p. 135.
13. Muslims in West Africa: History and Civilization, Muhammad Barry and Said Kreidieh, p. 270.
14. Infaq al-Maysur, p. 166.
15. Islam in Nigeria, p. 210.
16. See: The Impossible State in Africa, Hamdi Abdel Rahman, and The Islamic Jihad Movement in West Africa in the Nineteenth Century, Ahmad Muhammad Kani.

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