Independent States in Islamic History and Prerequisites for Civilizational Contribution
During the eras of the Rightly Guided Caliphs
and the Umayyads, the concept of 'independent states' was unknown to Muslims,
as the Islamic State remained a single, unified entity. Despite the bitterness
of the Great Fitna (the First Civil War) and the intensity of the internal
strife, the Islamic psyche could not reconcile with the notion of having two
separate caliphs—Ali in Kufa and Muawiyah in Damascus (may Allah be pleased
with them both).
However, with the onset of
the First Abbasid Era (132–232 AH), Al-Andalus seceded
under Umayyad leadership from the nascent Abbasid State. Subsequently, the
Aghlabid Dynasty emerged in Tunisia (184–296 AH), founded by Ibrahim ibn
al-Aghlab with the consent of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. It was established as a
buffer state to shield the central Abbasid realms in the East and North Africa
from their rivals in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus.
The Muslim world under the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates did not
witness the emergence of autonomous states; rather, it was characterized by a
monolithic political structure.
Independent Dynasties under Abbasid Rule
Hardly had the Second Abbasid Era dawned (232
AH onwards) when a wave of independent states began to emerge. In the Levant
and Egypt, the Tulunids (254–292 AH) rose to power, followed by the Ikhshidids
(323–358 AH), the Ayyubids (567–648 AH), and the Mamluks (648–923 AH).
Meanwhile, the Islamic East witnessed a similar fragmentation with the rise of
the Tahirids (205–259 AH), the Samanids (204–395 AH), and the Saffarids
(253–300 AH), followed by the Buyids (320–454 AH), the Ghaznavids (351–582 AH),
and finally the Seljuks (429–590 AH).
In the Maghreb (North Africa), other
independent states emerged: the Midrarid dynasty and the Kharijite Rustamids,
the Alid Idrisids, followed by the Sunni Almoravids (448–541 AH) and the
Almohads (524–667 AH).
The general rule for the petty states in the
East was to recognize the Abbasid Caliph’s suzerainty; preachers would invoke
his name in the Friday sermons (Khutbah), and tax revenues—or a portion of
them—were dispatched to his treasury. Conversely, in the Maghreb and
Al-Andalus, the prevailing trend was to reject Abbasid authority. This was
exemplified by the Umayyads in Al-Andalus, the Idrisids, and later the
Rustamids and the Almohads.
The enfeebled Abbasid Caliph was powerless to
halt such fragmentation, finding himself compelled to grant recognition—whether
willingly or under duress. Yet, in reality, these independent states were
capable of catalyzing civilizational advancements for Islam that, at times, far
outweighed the perils of political division.
Who could deny the merits of the Aghlabids in
repelling the threats of the neighboring Kharijites and Shiites? Their most
significant achievement, however, remains the conquest of Sicily, which
commenced in 212 AH. This endeavor spanned long years of struggle and
sacrifice, ultimately spreading Islam among its inhabitants—standing in close
proximity to Rome, the seat of the Catholic Papacy.
During the Abbasid period, the rise of autonomous dynasties brought
advancements to the Islamic world that arguably outweighed the downsides of
division.
Small States, Grand Missions:
Similarly, the Saffarids and Samanids were
credited with propagating Islam among the Turkic tribes. Their forces
successfully ventured into the rugged, inaccessible regions of
Transoxiana—territories that the early Muslim conquerors had never reached.
The Ghaznavids also played a
monumental role in extending the horizons of Islam across vast territories of
India. Their efforts paved the way for the later emergence of the Great Mughal
Empire, which not only continued the spread of the faith but also provided an
extraordinary model of peaceful coexistence. Amidst millions of Indians, the
Mughals fostered harmony between Muslims and a diverse population representing
a staggering tapestry of thousands of religions, languages, and civilizations.
As for the nomadic Seljuks, they infused their
vigorous spirit into the withered veins of the Abbasid state, extending the
lifespan of the Caliphate by nearly two centuries. They are credited with
restoring the luster of Sunni Orthodoxy after decades of decline in the face of
the Buyid Shiite tide, which had seized control of Baghdad—the heart of the
Sunni world—and threatened its survival in the Levant and Egypt following the
Fatimid (Ubaydid) expansion.
Yet, the Seljuks' crowning achievement lay in
their resistance against Crusader aggression
and their resounding victory over the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of
Manzikert in 1071 AD (463 AH). This pivotal encounter marked the first time in
Islamic history that a Byzantine Emperor was taken captive. Their ultimate
legacy, however, was forged as they advanced into Asia Minor (Anatolia) to
establish the Sultanate of Rum, which stood as a formidable bulwark against the
Crusader onslaught toward the Levant for generations.
The Almoravid leader, Yusuf ibn Tashfin,
refused to style himself as the 'Commander of the Faithful' (Amir al-Mu'minin)
out of deference to the Abbasid Caliph, opting instead for the title 'Commander
of the Muslims' (Amir al-Muslimin). The Almoravids were instrumental in
safeguarding Islam in Al-Andalus, as they successfully halted the Crusader
armies and secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Al-Zallaqa (Sagrajas) in
479 AH.
The Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad lacked the
capacity to wage war against the Crusaders, thus delegating the mission of
Jihad to his commander, Aq Sunqur. From his lineage emerged Imad ad-Din Zengi,
followed by Nur ad-Din Mahmud, and then his
most distinguished protégé, Saladin (Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub). These
prominent leaders broke the back of the Crusader presence. When the Mamluks
eventually succeeded them, it became their destiny to save the Islamic
world—and indeed all of humanity—from the Mongol peril, before finally
eliminating the last remnants of the Crusaders in the Levant.
The awakening of the Ummah’s peoples and their realization of the
profound ideological bond that united them were instrumental in safeguarding
its sovereignty.
Divided Realms, One Shared Legacy
History will forever record the Samanids'
legacy in Bukhara, notably their translation of the Quranic exegesis (Tafsir)
into the Persian language. The Samanid court was a flourishing sanctuary,
graced by the presence of preeminent thinkers, poets, and scholars. The
Ghaznavids displayed a similar commitment to civilizational excellence; it was
under their patronage that the epic poet Ferdowsi flourished. Great historians
were equally moved by the heroic exploits of Mahmud of Ghazni, including Abu
Nasr al-Utbi, author of Al-Tarikh al-Yamini—named after the Sultan’s
title, Yamin al-Dawla (The Right Hand of the State). This era also
produced Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, the author of The Remaining Signs of Past
Centuries, and Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi, author of Tarikh-i Bayhaqi.
The Hamdanids (293–394 AH) produced a galaxy
of eminent poets; suffice it to mention the circle of Sayf al-Dawla and the
legendary Al-Mutanabbi. During the Aghlabid era, the figure of Qadi Asad ibn
al-Furat rose to prominence—the judge-commander who spearheaded the conquest of
Sicily. In a later period, giants like Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim emerged,
alongside illustrious scholarly lineages such as the Banu Asakir, Banu Qudamah,
and Banu al-Subki, all flourishing under the nominal Abbasid Caliphate in
Cairo.
The capitals and major cities of these
independent states were transformed into vibrant urban centers of Islamic
science and civilization. They hosted schools, universities, mosques, and
charitable endowments (Waqfs)—as seen in Bukhara, Samarkand, Ghazna, Cairo,
Damascus, Tunis, Cordoba, Toledo, and Jativa. Their diverse peoples—Arabs,
Persians, Turks, Daylamites, Berbers, and others—collaborated seamlessly,
upholding the values of justice. This justice was upheld by a judiciary
independent of shifting political wills, for it derived from a divine law that
transcends earthly whims. Thus, it encompassed Muslims and Dhimmis
(protected non-Muslim citizens) alike, within a society teeming with religious
diversity that only expanded as new territories were opened.
True prosperity lies only in returning to
the foundations of success and salvation: by adhering to the Religion of Truth
and the Civilization of Justice.
Thus, a positive dimension coexisted alongside
the negative impact of these states' independence—whether within the framework
of the Caliphate or beyond it. However, this potential was always contingent
upon certain factors, most notably: the awakening of the Ummah’s public
consciousness and the people’s realization of the profound, unbreakable bond
that political divides could never erase. It was this collective awareness that
played a pivotal role in steering rulers toward the supreme objectives of Islam:
the propagation of the faith, the struggle in its cause, and the resolute
defense against its enemies.
Many rulers turned their backs on the
supreme legitimacy of Islam, vying instead to appease their enemies; as a
result, the Ummah fell into decline.
Rise and Fall: The Universal Patterns of the
Ummah's Journey
This momentum was further amplified by the
role of scholars who traversed these states and urban centers, seeking and
disseminating knowledge while reinforcing the profound bonds of Islamic
brotherhood across diverse peoples. Equally vital was the statesmen and rulers'
awareness of the Ummah's unity and their multifaceted political roles,
alongside the importance they placed on preserving the symbolism of the
Caliphate—even in its enfeebled state—due to its paramount value in the Islamic
collective consciousness.
Until the wheel of time turned, and many
rulers turned their backs on the supreme legitimacy of Islam. Fragmented by
materialist ideologies, they competed to appease masters who shared neither
their faith nor their lineage—men belonging to a history, a set of values, and
a civilization entirely alien to their own. These new masters harbored
ill-intent, masking their malicious falsehoods with allure, while the rulers
rushed toward them in haste.( the
Day they will rush out of their graves as if rallying to a flag,)
(Al-Ma'arij:43)
When the adherence to the spirit that
sustained the Ummah—the spirit of its Sharia and Monotheism (Tawhid)—vanished,
the bonds between its peoples dissolved. Their purposes and ambitions diverged,
emboldening their enemies to infiltrate through the fault lines of intrigue.
The widest of these openings was the exploitation of their diverse ethnicities,
nationalities, and historical grievances—banners that are easily raised to
incite division under the guise of justice.
Ultimately, true prosperity can only be found
in a return to the foundations of success and salvation: by adhering to the
Religion of Truth and the Civilization of Justice. (Authority belongs to God alone, and He
orders you to worship none but Him: this is the true faith, though most people
do not realize it) ( Yusuf:40)
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