In the previous article, we talked about the assassination attempt on Sheikh Uthman dan Fodio, which served as a catalyst for the transformation of his preaching, and the attempt of King Gobir Bawa to appease him afterward. Sheikh Uthman utilized this opportunity to set conditions to improve the situation of Muslims in the kingdom, significantly enhancing his influence and leading many to join him. This hastened the confrontation phase during King Yunfa's reign, beginning with Sheikh Uthman's migration, the king's declaration of war on him, and the group's pledge of allegiance to Sheikh Uthman to lead them in repelling the king's aggression.

Wars of State Foundation

Immediately after the allegiance was pledged, Sheikh Uthman laid out the main features of his state, appointing his brother, the esteemed scholar, Abdullah dan Fodio, as his first minister, his friend Umar al-Kamuni as his second minister, Sheikh Muhammad Thimbo as the chief judge and prayer leader, and Muhammad bin al-Hasan, known as Sa’dar, as the army commander. ⁽¹⁾

The soldiers then worked diligently to dig a trench to protect themselves from any surprise attacks. ⁽²⁾ Soon after, the Battle of “Kutu” occurred in May 1804, which Sheikh Uthman's followers described as the decisive day when the two armies met for being the greatest battle between the two parties. Allah granted victory to Sheikh Uthman and his group in this battle, leading Yunfa to flee, abandoning his wealth and kingdom. He retreated to a place called Tanbagark, gathered some supporters, and fled to the far reaches of the land, where they camped. Sheikh Uthman’s group pursued them until they defeated them at a place called Gando. ⁽³⁾

After a short period, Sheikh Uthman settled there, and his son Muhammad Bello built a formidable fortress ⁽⁴⁾ to be near Gobir. Indeed, this strategy proved effective as he conquered the towns and subdued the forts around them within less than four years, eventually entering the capital, Al-Qadau, after three battles. Gobir was captured in the last of these battles, and King Yunfa and his men were killed in 1808. ⁽⁵⁾ This victory was seen by Sheikh Uthman's followers as the greatest conquest, securing the entire country and establishing the state's stability.

Expansion Conquests

The kings of the Hausa lands did not cease their hostility toward Sheikh Uthman’s preaching, persecuting the Fulani under their control. This initiated a phase of expansion for Sheikh Uthman's state across these kingdoms. His army was not organized in the modern sense but instead followed a method where he entrusted leaders of his army or local individuals with the mission of conquest along with their local allies. This method proved highly effective, leading to the capture of the Kingdom of Kebbi after a siege, causing its Sultan to flee in April 1805. ⁽⁶⁾ Subsequently, the Kingdom of Kano was conquered after a fierce battle in which its king was killed in 1807. Other kingdoms, including Katsina, Daura, Zaria, Bauchi, and Gombe, among many others, fell until Sheikh Uthman's state encompassed all seven ancient Hausa kingdoms. ⁽⁷⁾ His state became renowned as the Islamic Caliphate of Sokoto, named after its capital.

The Scholarly Debate Between Sheikh Uthman’s Group and Their Opponents

As with any reform movement, Sheikh Uthman's faced resistance from some contemporaries, who questioned its piety and knowledge. Muhammad Bello documented several correspondences in “Infaq al-Maysur” between Sheikh Uthman's group, represented by himself and his uncle Abdullah, and several of their opponents. These correspondences claimed that their reform movement was not based on true religion but deviated from the customs of the local people, forcing them into their beliefs and practices. Sheikh Uthman’s group provided detailed scholarly arguments, citing past and contemporary scholars—especially Maliki jurists—to justify their actions and refute the opponents' claims with definitive responses. ⁽⁸⁾

The Political System

The caliphate was the system of governance from the first day of Sheikh Uthman’s state. His followers pledged allegiance to him—after consulting among themselves—on obedience and adherence to the Quran and Sunnah. He established the principle of shura (consultation) in choosing the next caliph ⁽⁹⁾ making shura fundamental in appointing any position within the state. ⁽¹⁰⁾ The primary condition for all of this was adherence to the Quran and Sunnah, avoiding whims and innovations. ⁽¹¹⁾ He detailed the principles and foundations of governance, setting up the political, judicial, and administrative systems of the state. He authored a book titled “The Difference Between the Governance of Muslims and Non-Muslims.”

The Cultural and Educational System

Given the scholarly nature prevalent among the Fulani, it was expected that the state's stability would lead to a flourishing of educational and cultural aspects. The Mosque University of Sokoto became one of the most renowned universities in the world at that time. Many mosques were built during his reign, serving as universities. ⁽¹²⁾ Despite Sheikh Uthman’s engagement in preaching and conquests, he produced over a hundred scholars who reached the level of ijtihad (independent reasoning). ⁽¹³⁾ His extensive scholarly legacy exceeded a hundred works, ⁽¹⁴⁾ alongside the contributions of his brother, sons, and students, and whoever followed their paths throughout the state’s existence.

Conclusion

Sheikh Uthman’s state remained cohesive for a considerable period under his successors. Eventually, the British discovered these lands and initiated what Al-Aluri called the “Cold Crusades,” which included missionary campaigns. ⁽¹⁵⁾ They cultivated followers in these lands, instilling in them animosity toward Islam, distinguishing them from the rest of the population in terms of education, services, employment, and other means of livelihood. They sought to increase their numbers to strengthen their fight against the Islamic state, which lasted for nearly a century until it officially fell to British occupation in 1903. However, its religious, scholarly, and cultural impacts remained present in West and Central Africa. Its political presence continues today, though much diminished, in some northern Nigerian states within the federal system. It served as a model for Muslims across Africa in modern times. ⁽¹⁶⁾

May Allah have mercy on Sheikh Uthman and his companions and reward them abundantly for the millions of Muslims who came to know Islam in these lands through them.

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1. Islam in Nigeria by Al-Alory, p. 156.
2. Infaq al-Maysur fi Tarikh Bilad al-Takrur, by Sheikh Muhammad Bello p. 64.
3. , pp. 66–71.
4. Islam in Nigeria, p. 160.
5. Infaq al-Maysur, p. 109.
6. , p. 132. This book chronicles all the battles that took place during Sheikh Uthman’s life and up to the establishment of the state.
7. The Hausa and Their Neighbors, Mahdi Adamu, within the book General History of Africa, Vol. 4, p. 273.
8. Infaq al-Maysur, starting from p. 114. It begins with a debate between the Sheikh and Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi, also mentioned by Al-Aluri from p. 173.
9. Al-Ghaith al-Wabl fi Sirat al-Imam al-Adl, p. 37.
10. Usul al-Adl li-Wulat al-Umur wa-Ahl al-Fadl, Uthman dan Fodio, p. 4.
11. Usul al-Wilayah wa-Shurutaha, Uthman dan Fodio, p. 2.
12. Islam in Nigeria, p. 135.
13. Muslims in West Africa: History and Civilization, Muhammad Barry and Said Kreidieh, p. 270.
14. Infaq al-Maysur, p. 166.
15. Islam in Nigeria, p. 210.
16. See: The Impossible State in Africa, Hamdi Abdel Rahman, and The Islamic Jihad Movement in West Africa in the Nineteenth Century, Ahmad Muhammad Kani.

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In the previous article, we discussed the beginnings of the greatest Islamic preacher in modern Africa, Sheikh Usman Dan Fodio. We mentioned his name, lineage, birth, family, education, the beginnings of his call, and his journey until his fame spread.

In this article, we explore the preconditions for the transition of his reform experience from the phase of preaching to the phase of conflict with the kings of Gobir, which served as the nucleus for the formation of his state.

Assassination Attempt and the Turning Point in His Call

Delegations came to the Sheikh from the east and west, along with all the scholars of his time from all over the Hausa land, supporting him, causing the kings to worry about his growing fame and influence among the people. The first to be concerned was the King of Gobir, Bawa, who tried to lure him with money and gifts to bring him under his control. However, the Sheikh did not succumb and declared that his visits were solely for preaching. This deeply affected Bawa, leading him to decide to assassinate the Sheikh. On the day of Eid al-Adha in 1204 AH / 1789 AD, as narrated by Al-Alory, he says: “The king sent for the Sheikh one day, asking him to come to the city to issue a fatwa on a critical matter. The Sheikh went with his friend Umar al-Kamuni and his brother Abdullah. When they entered, the king seated them in one of the palace rooms and suddenly fired at them without warning. But Allah thwarted his plan, and the bullets bounced back, causing him to fall to the ground without being killed. The king then approached them, apologizing and seeking their forgiveness. They harshly rebuked him and left the palace safely, thanking Allah for this miraculous protection.” ⁽¹⁾

The king then offered the Sheikh 500 Mithqal of gold as compensation, which he refused. The king was forced to negotiate to delay the inevitable conflict. The negotiations resulted in significant conditions, including respect for scholars, the release of imprisoned preachers, allowing individuals or groups to join the Sheikh’s call freely, and refraining from imposing extreme taxes on the subjects. ⁽²⁾

These conditions, as seen, were not for the Sheikh’s personal gain but for the benefit of all Muslims, enhancing his stature among the people and increasing his supporters. This situation remained unchanged until Bawa's death, after which his son Yakubu and then Nafata continued the hostility to the Islamic call.

Hostility of the Gobir Kings to the Call

As the Sheikh’s call spread and the kings of Gobir tried to curb it, King Nafata issued a decree announced in the markets. Muhammad Bello, son of Sheikh Uthman, narrates: “We were surprised by the decree of the King of Gobir, Nafata, stating three things:

1. No one was allowed to preach except the Sheikh.
2. Only those who inherited Islam from their ancestors were allowed to be Muslims. Others had to return to the religion of their forefathers.
3. No one was allowed to wear a turban or for women to cover with their headscarves.” ⁽³⁾

Nafata soon died without implementing his decree, and his son Yunfa, a former student of the Sheikh, promised to abolish his father's decree and allow the call freely. However, this was merely a tactic to gain time to consolidate his rule. ⁽⁴⁾ Yunfa proved to be worse than his predecessors, attacking a village in the Ganeeba area where Sheikh Abdussalam al-Fulani, one of Uthman’s followers, lived after he, his family, and his followers fled his tyranny. His army killed many scholars and villagers, looted their properties, captured their women, and even desecrated and burned Qurans, all in broad daylight of Ramadan! ⁽⁵⁾

Migration and Organizing the Community

Yunfa's army then threatened the Sheikh’s village in Duggle, sending a message from the king demanding their departure because they’re going to attack the village. The Sheikh insisted on migrating with all his followers. When the king learned of this, he retracted his threat, asking them to stay. The Sheikh, knowing it was a trick to eliminate them, insisted on migrating in 1218 AH / 1804 AD to Gudu, ⁽⁶⁾ assisted and protected by his companion, the jurist Aghal the Tuareg, and his Tuareg friends.

The Sheikh’s supporters grew, coming from Gobir and all over Hausa land, ⁽⁷⁾ alarming the king, who realized his grave mistake in ordering the Sheikh’s departure, knowing how it's even harder to get rid of him now. He requested the Sheikh to return to Duggle, but the Sheikh refused unless the king repented and returned to true Islam, returning what he had taken from the people. ⁽⁸⁾ The king, advised by his ministers and corrupt scholars, decided to fight the Sheikh and his followers. He immediately cut the road off on those who wanted to join the Sheikh, confiscating the properties of everyone migrating with him and killing those attempting to join him. This resulted in the killing and looting of many of the Sheikh’s followers. ⁽⁹⁾

Declaring War

The Sheikh did not want matters to escalate to this point, preferring peaceful preaching as he did with previous kings of Gobir. However, with the king declaring war, the Sheikh’s community pledged allegiance to him to follow Allah and His Messenger, holding fast to the Quran and Sunnah to defend against Yunfa. They interpreted this as the meaning of Allah's words: “And hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided.” (Al-Imran: 103) ⁽¹⁰⁾

In the next article, in Allah’s will, we will discuss this conflict, which ultimately resulted in the formation of the Sokoto Caliphate, which still has some presence in northern Nigeria today.

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1. Islam in Nigeria by Al-Alory, p. 153.
2. Glimpses of the History of Islam in Nigeria Between the Past and the Present, Ali Ayoub Naji, p. 65.
3. Infaq al-Maysur fi Tarikh Bilad al-Takrur, by Sheikh Muhammad Bello p. 60.
4. The Reform Movement of Sheikh Usman Dan Fodio in West Africa and Its Religious Impacts, Abdullah Abdulrazzaq Ibrahim, p. 242.
5. Infaq al-Maysur, p. 61.
6. Specifically on the 12th of Dhul Qa’dah corresponding to February 21st, a day revered by the people of Northern Nigeria to this day, referred to as “Migration Day.” Refer to: Islam in Nigeria, Abdulrahman Zaki, Institute of Oriental Studies.
7. Tazyin al-Waraqaat by Abdullah Fodio, p. 55.
8. Islam in Nigeria by Al-Alory, p. 155.
9. Warning the Brothers About the Conditions of the People of Sudan, Usman Dan Fodio, p. 29.
10. The Sheikh explained this and some of its rulings in his book: Important Issues That the People of Sudan Need to Know, p. 188.

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In the previous article, we discussed the emergence of Islam in Nigeria and its surrounding regions and the impact of the Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, Songhai, and the Empires of Kanem and Bornu. In this article, we review the history of the greatest Islamic preacher in this magnificent part of Africa, Imam Uthman dan Fodio, ⁽¹⁾ whose influence extends to this day.

His Name, Lineage, and Birth

He is Uthman ibn Muhammad, nicknamed Fodio (meaning “jurist” in Fulani), ibn Uthman ibn Salih ibn Harun ibn Muhammad Ghurdu, from the descendants of Musa Jakollo, ⁽²⁾ Fulani, tracing his lineage back to Uqbah ibn Nafi in the most famous accounts. ⁽³⁾ He was born in 1169 AH / 1755 CE in the village of Maratta on the outskirts of the Gobir region in the Sokoto area, known as the land of the Hausa.

His Family and Teachers

The Fulani are well-known for their dedication to religion and scholarly upbringing, with Arabic spreading among them as much as Fulani. Sheikh Uthman’s family, in particular, was known for their piety and culture. Most of his teachers were from his family and relatives, such as his father, Muhammad Fodio, from whom he learned the basics of Arabic and the Quran, recitation, tajweed rules, and memorization; his mother, Hawwa; his maternal grandmother, Ruqayyah; and the six major books of authentic Hadith along with Maliki jurisprudence from Hajji Muhammad ibn Raj. He also studied jurisprudence under Bador ibn Al-Amin and Muhammad Thambo ibn Abdullah, all of whom were family members. ⁽⁴⁾ He learned Arabic ‘I'rab from Sheikh Abdul Rahman Hamda, Quranic tafsir from Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hashim Al-Zanfari, ⁽⁵⁾ and various sciences such as the principles of jurisprudence, Hadith, and its chain of narrators from Jibril ibn Umar, the teacher who greatly influenced him and to whom he attributed much of his success.

His Personality

Sheikh Uthman was known for his piety, religious devotion, revival of Sunnah, and elimination of innovation. He spread knowledge, interpreted the Quran for many years, was knowledgeable of its rulings, abrogations, and hadiths, and was respected by both the elite and the common people. He was eloquent, a memorizer, a poet, and a source of fatwas. He was a devout worshipper, focusing on inner purity as much as outer, and firm in his faith, not fearing any reproach. ⁽⁶⁾

He was an Ash'ari Sufi, ⁽⁷⁾ but he did not deviate from Allah's warnings, nor did he detach from reality or fail to act according to the Quran and Sunnah. He upheld justice, commanded good, forbade evil, then he became a mujahid, and eventually a ruler enforcing Islamic Sharia.

The State of His Country During His Upbringing

Western Sudan, known to Arabs as the land of Tukulor, consisted of seven regions: Zanfar, Kab, Yaur, Nafi, Yerb, Bargo, and Garam, each with its own ruler, containing various countries and kingdoms. Despite their affiliation with Islam, there was a significant deviation from it. In Bornu (now northeastern Nigeria), the rulers and princes had places where they went to sacrifice then sprinkle blood on their village gates. They had revered houses with snakes and objects, to which they practiced rituals like sacrificing, and they practiced rituals akin to those of the ancient Egyptians with the Nile. They collected money from people, claiming that not doing so would harm their livelihoods, reduce their wealth, and weaken their power, passing these practices down through generations. ⁽⁸⁾

Similarly, in Aheer of Gobir, whenever a scholar or righteous emerged and then died, they would appoint one of his descendants in his place, following him as they did his predecessor, even if he was ignorant or an infidel. Some of them did not inherit according to the Quran and Sunnah, and if one of them was killed, they would kill someone from the killer’s tribe. They deposed their rulers without legitimate reasons, leading to the fragmentation and weakening of their state. ⁽⁹⁾

In Yoruba lands, theft, immorality, and selling Muslim slaves to Christians were widespread. ⁽¹⁰⁾ In Dur, Kashina, Kano, and Gobir, the Falata would gather in the desert with their young children, perform sorcery, light large fires, slaughter as many cattle as possible, and place the meat around the fire. They would then beat their children with sticks, circle the fire and meat, dance, and chant, “We are the trust of Allah; we are your trust, O fire; you are our father and mother,” ⁽¹¹⁾ among other such practices.

The Preaching Stage

Sheikh Uthman began his preaching mission around 1189 AH / 1775 CE, spending nearly 30 years in this stage. His message was primarily about teaching obligatory duties and clarifying religious matters. ⁽¹²⁾ He was known for his cheerful demeanor, smiley face, patience in listening to people, and enduring their harm. He warned against innovations and violations, addressing even the rulers of Hausa lands. When they heard of his fame, he began addressing them directly, traveling to King Bawa of the Gobir Kingdom, who lived on its outskirts, explaining true Islam and urging him to rule his subjects justly. ⁽¹³⁾

He traveled east and west spreading his message, focusing on the oneness of Allah and rejecting polytheism and pre-Islamic customs prevalent in those lands. In 1194 AH / 1780 CE, he went to the land of Kebbi, leading many to repent and abandon their false customs. ⁽¹⁴⁾ In 1198 AH / 1783 CE, he went to Zamfar, stayed until he was assured of the people's Islam, then returned. In 1207 AH / 1792 CE, he traveled to the land of Zom with a group of his followers, including his brother Abdullah, calling its people and their leader to Islam. ⁽¹⁵⁾ These journeys had a significant impact on the spread of his message and the increase in his followers, which led to the king's enmity, attempts to assassinate him, and fighting his followers, thus transitioning his mission to a new phase where he declared jihad, paving the way for establishing his state.

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1. Dan means “son” in Fulani, and his father's name is sometimes written with and without the 'o', depending on translation.
2. Several scholars from these regions, including Al-Alory and Minister Junaid, have traced Dan Fodio's lineage.
3. Mentioned by his son, Sheikh Muhammad Bello ibn Uthman, in Infaq al-Maysur fi Tarikh Bilad al-Takrur, p. 58.
4. Detailed by his brother, Abdullah Dan Fodio, in Ida’ al-Nusukh mn Akhadhatu ‘anhum min al-Shuyukh, pp. 15-16.
5. Islam in Nigeria by Al-Alory, p. 134.
6. Infaq al-Maysur, p. 41, includes a detailed biography of him.
7. A common practice among those raised in these environments in Islamic history, but these innovations did not prevent them from upholding the truth and jihad for Allah's sake.
8. Infaq al-Maysur, p. 8.
9. , p. 13.
10. , p. 17.
11. , p. 18.
12. Islam and State in Africa by Bahija Al-Shadhili, p. 14.
13. Tazyin al-Waraqaat by Abdullah Fodio, p. 4.
14. , p. 8.
15. Islamic Preaching in West Africa by Hussein Issa Abdel Zahir, p. 274.

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Islamic lands are vast, and Muslims are many, making up a quarter of the world’s population, which is filled with various religions. Only one-fifth of Muslims are Arabs, while 80% are non-Arabs, spread across the eastern and western parts of the world. Many Muslims are unaware of their conditions, despite the Sharia establishing rights and duties based on this. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) likened us to a single body when he said, “The believers in their mutual kindness, compassion and sympathy are just like one body. When one of the limbs suffers, the whole body responds to it with wakefulness and fever.” ⁽¹⁾

In these articles, we will review some pages from the history of Muslims in Nigeria in fulfillment of this duty. Nigeria should be described as several countries considering it's the largest concentration of Muslims in Africa, where they constitute 53.5% of the population, which amounts to 220 million people, and they are increasing significantly. ⁽²⁾ Considering its vast area of 923,769 km², the highest population density in Africa with 218 inhabitants/km², and its ethnic diversity with over 250 ethnic groups, including Hausa, Yoruba, Fulani, Igbo, Ijaw, Ibibio, Tiv, Kanuri, and others, and the existence of over 500 languages, including Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Fulfulde, alongside English, the official language. Nigeria is a federal republic composed of 36 states and a federal capital, with each state allowed to establish its laws. Muslims form an absolute majority in 19 states, with 12 of these states implementing laws derived from Sharia. ⁽³⁾

The Origin of Islam in Nigeria

Regarding history, the multiple influences on the history of Islam in Nigeria and the establishment of several kingdoms that covered vast parts of it make it more of a group of states than a single state.

The introduction of Islam to Nigeria began with the influence of the regions conquered by Muslims in North Africa during the era of the revered companions, led by the noble follower Uqba ibn Nafi (d. 63 AH), who advanced westwards from the east until he reached the sea and said, “O Allah, bear witness that if there was a way forward, I would have crossed it.” ⁽⁴⁾ He was succeeded by Musa ibn Nusayr (d. 97 AH), who reinstated Islam among those who had apostatized and participated in the conquest of what remained of these lands, eventually reaching Andalusia. The influence of Islam from North Africa continued to spread southward into central and western Africa through intermarriage between Arab tribes and local inhabitants, trade movements, and Islamic conquests, thereby establishing and strengthening Islam in Nigeria.

The Kingdom of Ghana

The first reference to the history of Islam in West Africa is from the Kingdom of Ghana, which at its height extended from the Sahara in the north, Nigeria in the east, the ocean in the west, and the south to cover almost all of West Africa. Its inhabitants were pagans until Islam gradually entered their lands.

The kingdom reached its peak in the fifth century AH, as described by the Andalusian geographer Abu Ubayd al-Bakri (d. 487 AH), who visited it in 460 AH / 1028 AD. He found widespread Islam and noted that its capital was divided into two major parts: one for Muslims and the other for pagans. In the Muslim quarter, there were 12 mosques, each with an imam, a mu'adhin, a reciter, and a teacher. Even within the pagan quarter, there was a mosque near the royal palace where Muslim members of the king’s entourage prayed. ⁽⁵⁾ It is mentioned that this was due to the Umayyad state sending an Islamic army to conquer western Sudan at the beginning of Islam. Some of these soldiers settled in Ghana and spread Islam among its people.

Thus, Islam did not appear suddenly in the Ghana Empire; it took time through da’wah before the Almoravids conquered it in 469 AH / 1076 AD, when its capital, Koumbi Saleh, fell and was annexed by the Almoravids to their lands. King Tunka Manin of Ghana was influenced by Islam, accepted the sovereignty of the Almoravid leader Abu Bakr ibn Umar, and converted to Islam, opening the door for the masses to follow suit, transforming the kingdom from paganism to Islam. Al-Qalqashandi noted: “Its people converted to Islam at the beginning of the conquest.” ⁽⁶⁾ It remained so until its fall at the hands of the pagan Kingdom of Sosso and its allies from the Kingdoms of Galam and Diarra in 600 AH.

The Influence of the Kingdom of Mali, Then Songhai, and the Empires of Kanem and Bornu on Nigeria

The Kingdom of Mali did not fall with the fall of Ghana. Instead, after about 38 years, it waged war against the Kingdom of Sosso, killed its king, and in 638 AH / 1240 AD, Sundiata, the King of Mali, marched on Koumbi Saleh, reconquering it. The kingdom’s influence spread over most of the old Ghana Empire’s territories, playing a significant role in spreading Islam across West Africa and maintaining its presence even in areas under pagan rule. One of its most famous rulers was Mansa Musa, the richest man in history, according to some historians. During his reign, the kingdom was one of the wealthiest, most urbanized, and most advanced civilizations.

The Kingdom of Songhai, which succeeded Mali, expanded to include northern Nigeria, reaching its peak during the reign of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al-Turi, known as Askia Muhammad, who was close to scholars, inviting many, such as Imam Muhammad ibn Abd al-Karim al-Maghili ⁽⁷⁾, among others.

The Bornu Empire, which arose as an extension of the Kanem Empire established in the fifth century AH, significantly impacted Nigeria from 1380 to 1893, and it covered parts of Sudan, Chad, Libya, Niger, and Cameroon. One of its most notable rulers was Idris III, known as Alooma (d. 1602), a great Muslim leader, military commander, and righteous ruler. During his reign, the army was armed with Turkish rifles, and the empire had ambassadors to Arab and Islamic countries. In Cairo, there was a school for Maliki jurisprudence dedicated to its people, and later, a special teaching hall for them at Al-Azhar. ⁽⁸⁾

In the late eighteenth century, weakness and signs of deviation spread within the empire, leading to the famous Fulani War, which significantly reduced Bornu’s influence in many areas. This marked the rise of a great hero, a significant leader, and a religious renewer in this vast geographical region, Usman Dan Fodio, whose story we will discuss in the next article, in Allah’s will.

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1. Reported by Bukhari (6011) and Muslim (2586).
2. According to a 2015 report by the Pew Research Center, by 2060, Muslims are estimated to make up 60% of the country's population.
3. 2008 Report on International Religious Freedom by the U.S. Department of State.
4. The Complete History by Ibn al-Athir, Vol. 4, p. 42.
5. Described in his book: Roads and Kingdoms, Vol. 2, pp. 871, 872.
6. Quoted from the book: Muslims in West Africa, p. 33.
7. Their questions and answers were known as: “The Poor Man’s Responses to the Questions of the Emir.”
8. Mentioned by Adam Abdullah al-Ilori in his book: Islam in Nigeria.

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